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  • Editing, How-to

    How to punctuate dialogue in fiction

    Polishing your dialogue punctuation is an easy way to make your manuscript look professional and keep who’s speaking clear for your reader.

    Proper dialogue punctuation isn’t just about following the rules. It makes the reading experience seamless and enjoyable for your audience, allowing them to focus on the conversation and immerse in the scene you’ve created.

    There are two big problems with inconsistent or incorrect punctuation. The first is that it pulls your reader out of the story as they trip over confusing sentences or grammar faux pas. The second is that it immediately marks you as an amateur. And that’s the last thing you want to flag to potential readers, agents or publishers.

    So, here’s how to punctuate dialogue in fiction properly, from the basics to some next-level tips (and yes, these apply to non-fiction writers too). 

    Which quote marks to use?

    Choose from either single or double quote marks and stick with it.

    Books published in Australia and the UK tend to use single quote marks with nested doubles for quoting within the quote.

    • For example: ‘Hey, do you like that song “Espresso” by Sabrina Carpenter?’

    US books (and Australian newspapers and magazines, just to keep us on our toes) reverse this, using double quotes with nested singles: 

    • “No, I much prefer Dua Lipa’s new song, ‘Illusion’.”

    You can choose which you prefer; I promise it doesn’t matter. The only rule is to be consistent with your choice.

    Do I have to use quote marks?

    Nope! Some good alternatives might be to put speech in italics, or to use dashes before dialogue, with each speaker taking a new line, the way you might see it set out in a transcript or play. (This can be confusing if there are more than two speakers, however!) But honestly, I don’t recommend going without quote marks altogether. Readers are so familiar with quote marks they barely register them. But when they’re missing, they really notice it. It can trip up some readers as they struggle to differentiate between narrative prose and dialogue, and that can pull them out of the story, which is the last thing you want.

    For some authors it’s a stylistic choice – and that’s totally fine. Sarah Winman, Kate Grenville and Deborah Levy are among the modern authors who have chosen this approach. If you love that style (and you’re writing literary fiction), go for it!

    My advice, however, is to leave this controversial move to the literary greats and use quote marks for your dialogue, especially you’re writing commercial genre fiction. Don’t give your readers a reason to put your book down!

    How to punctuate dialogue with a speech tag

    OK, let’s get into the nitty gritty.

    Speech tags are phrases that report how a character is speaking, such as said/says, reply/replied, ask/asked. They’re so common that they’re often as ‘invisible’ to readers as quote marks.

    When a speech tag follows dialogue, use a comma before the closing quote mark. For example:

    • Single quotes: ‘Amber, I love your shoes,’ said Violet.
    • Double quotes: “Amber, I love your shoes,” said Violet.

    Don’t place the comma outside the closing quote mark, like this:

    • Wrong: ‘Amber, I love your shoes’, said Violet.
    • Wrong: “Amber, I love your shoes”, said Violet.

    If the speech ends with a question mark or exclamation mark, a comma before the closing quote mark is NOT needed. 

    Here are some examples with both single and double quote marks:

    • Wrong: ‘I love your shoes!,’ Violet said.
    • Right: ‘I love your shoes!’ Violet said.
    • Wrong: “Do you really like them?,” Amber replied.
    • Right: “Do you really like them?” Amber replied.

    And even though it goes against what you learned at primary school, don’t be tempted to use a capital letter for the word following a question mark or exclamation mark in dialogue. For example:

    • Wrong: ‘I love your shoes!’ She said.
    • Right: ‘I love your shoes!’ she said.

    The exception: if you’re using a proper noun:

    • ‘I love your shoes!’ Violet said.

    What about if you want to put a speech tag before the speech? Use a comma after the speech tag and before the opening quote mark. Then finish the dialogue with a full stop inside the quote marks.

    • Violet said, ‘Amber, I love your shoes.’
    • Amber replied, ‘Thank you, I got them on sale.’

    How to punctuate dialogue without a speech tag

    You might not always want to use a speech tag. Once your characters are in the rhythm of a conversation, you don’t need to indicate who is speaking every time, because the convention of putting each speaker’s dialogue on a new line keeps it clear. In this case, simply finish the dialogue with a full stop (or other terminal punctuation like a question mark or exclamation mark) inside the quote marks. For example:

    • Single quotes: ‘Amber, I love your shoes.’
    • Double quotes: “Amber, I love your shoes.”
    • Single quotes: ‘Thank you, I really like them too!’
    • Double quotes: “Thank you, I really like them too!”

    How to punctuate dialogue with action beats

    Action beats show how a character is moving or reacting during dialogue. They’re similar to speech tags in that they indicate who is speaking, but they add a little extra characterisation that allows the author to ‘show’ rather than ‘tell’, so they’re a great device to use in fiction.

    To punctuate dialogue with an action beat instead of a speech tag, use a full stop before the closing quote mark instead of a comma. The action beat is in bold in the examples below. (Note: I’ll use single quotes for the rest of these examples – the punctuation is exactly the same when using double quote marks.)

    • ‘Amber, I love your shoes.’ Violet crouched down for a closer look.
    • ‘Really? Thank you.’ Amber glowed with pleasure at the compliment.

    If the speech ends with a question mark or exclamation mark, use that as your terminal punctuation instead of a full stop.

    • ‘Thanks, Violet!’ Amber blushed.

    Keep an eye out for action beats masquerading as speech tags. For instance, laugh, smile, frown, sigh, wink and yawn are actions, not speech. So, if you catch something like:

    • ‘Amber, I love your shoes,’ Violet smiled.
    • ‘Thanks,’ Amber winked.

    Change the comma to a full stop, as you would when using an action beat:

    • ‘Amber, I love your shoes.’ Violet smiled.
    • ‘Thanks.’ Amber winked.

    If you want to combine a speech tag with an action beat, use a comma to separate the speech tag from the action beat, like this:

    • ‘Amber, I love your shoes,’ Violet said, crouching down for a closer look.
    • ‘Thanks,’ Amber replied, twisting her ankle to show off the strappy heel.

    How to punctuate dialogue interruptions and trailing off

    To show someone’s voice trailing off, use an ellipsis inside the quote marks. No other terminal punctuation is needed. For bonus points, avoid telling the reader that the speaker’s voice has trailed off. The ellipsis does that work for you.

    • ‘Could I borrow them?’ Violet asked.
    • ‘I guess …’ Amber said.

    (Try to avoid writing: ‘I guess …’ Amber said, trailing off.)

    Here’s another example:

    • Wrong: ‘I wonder if …,’
    • Right: ‘I wonder if …’

    If you want to show speech that has been interrupted or broken off, use an em dash at the end of the interrupted sentence. No full stop or comma is needed after the dash, just your closing quote mark:

    • Right: ‘Wow, those shoes are—’ 
    • Wrong: ‘Wow, those shoes are—.’

    How to differentiate speakers

    Remember when I said above that you don’t always need to use a speech tag to tell a reader who is saying what? The conventional way to indicate different speakers in a conversation is to put each speaker’s dialogue on a new line. This is a tried-and-true format that makes dialogue easy to follow without too many overt cues.

    Even if the speaker isn’t speaking but simply reacting to something that the other character has said, put that action on a new line too. Otherwise you risk confusing your reader. For example, if you wrote:

    • ‘Wow, those shoes are amazing,’ Violet said. ‘I know.’ Amber looked smug.

    The reader will likely be confused for a second, because with both speakers’ dialogue and Amber’s reaction on the one line, it’s hard to differentiate between who said what. Instead, place Amber’s response and reaction on a new line to avoid confusing readers even for an instant.

    • ‘Wow, those shoes are amazing,’ Violet said.
    • ‘I know.’ Amber looked smug.

    How to punctuate dialogue that’s broken up with a speech tag or action beat

    Say you want to break up one character’s dialogue with a speech tag. This can be helpful to break up long stretches of dialogue and to enhance characterisation. Here’s how you’d do it if you were placing a speech tag between two complete sentences:

    • ‘I don’t care what you think,’ he said. ‘Your opinion doesn’t matter to anyone.’

    In this case, I don’t care what you think and Your opinion doesn’t matter to anyone are separate sentences, so you simply punctuate the first sentence with a comma as you would any other dialogue. There’s no need to add a speech tag to the second sentence because it’s already clear who’s speaking, so a full stop before the closing quote mark is all that’s needed.

    If you’re inserting an action beat between two complete sentences, there’s no need for a comma at the end of the first sentence because, as shown above, it isn’t followed by a speech tag. So a full stop before the closing quote mark in both sentences is all that’s required. Take a look at this example:

    • ‘I didn’t want you to come.’ Joan crossed her arms. ‘I just want to be alone.’

    If your speech tag interrupts one sentence rather than two complete sentences, use a comma after the speech tag and a lower case letter in the next clause to indicate the sentence is continuing. Here are a couple of examples:

    • ‘I don’t care what you think,’ he said, ‘because your opinion means nothing to me.’
    • ‘We went to the shops,’ she said quickly, ‘then the pool, then the library.’

    What about if you want to break up the sentence with an action beat rather than a speech tag? This can be a great way to add tension or emotion to a scene. In this case, use dashes outside the quote marks to separate the speech from the action. No commas are needed. Take a look at these examples:

    • ‘I told you’ – Amy jabbed a finger at his chest – ‘I’m not giving up.’
    • ‘What if he’s not guilty? What if he really is’ – Aaron swallowed roughly – ‘innocent?’

    If you’re using em dashes, it would look like this:

    • ‘I told you’—Amy jabbed a finger at his chest—‘I’m not giving up.’

    Remember, if the action is related to another speaker, it needs to be treated carefully. Ideally you’d put it on a new line, otherwise it can look like the speech is coming from a different character to the one you intended. Consider this line of Amy’s from above, interrupted with an action from Aaron and punctuated as though it were a speech tag:

    • ‘I don’t care what you say,’ Aaron glanced at her, shocked, ‘I’m not giving up.’

    It reads as though Aaron is speaking, right? That’s because the commas before the quote marks signal to your practiced reader eye that a speech tag is coming. Using a speech tag or adding dashes and tweaking the action beat to include Amy would fix it:

    • Speech tag: ‘I don’t care what you say,’ Amy replied, and Aaron glanced at her, shocked. ‘I’m not giving up.’
    • Dashes: ‘I don’t care what you say’ – Amy narrowed her eyes as Aaron shook his head – ‘I’m not giving up.’

    If the action interrupting dialogue is related to a different character and is followed by their speech, place the action and speech on a new line. In this example, Aaron follows his glance with dialogue:

    • ‘I don’t care what you say!’ Amy replied.
    • Aaron glanced at her. ‘It’s dangerous, Amy. I think you should reconsider.’
    • ‘I’m not giving up.’

    Common dialogue punctuation mistakes

    Let’s rehash. Dialogue punctuation is super important because getting it right guides your reader and helps them to stay immersed in the story. There are lots of nuances to dialogue punctuation, but I’ve covered the most common ones fiction writers are likely to encounter here.

    The dialogue mistakes I regularly see in fiction and non-fiction manuscripts:

    • – Using quote marks inconsistently
    • – Placing commas or full stops outside the closing punctuation mark
    • – Punctuating action beats as speech tags.

    Getting a handle on these will give your manuscript a professional edge and mark you as a serious writer. And even better, when you know how to punctuate dialogue properly, you can focus on making that dialogue shine.

    If you have any more questions about how to punctuate dialogue in fiction, drop me a line! And if you’d like help wrangling your manuscript’s grammar, get in touch with me to chat about a line and copyedit for your project. I offer a free sample edit so you can see exactly how copyediting will enhance your storytelling and clarify your message.

  • Author interviews

    Jade May is empowering her readers

    This author of spicy contemporary romance is bringing pleasure out of the shadows.

    Jade May author

    Romance authors know all too well that writing about love and relationships will likely lead to a few dismissive remarks and suggestive comments. If your books rank on the higher end of the chilli-rating system, it’s a guarantee. But what these raised eyebrows and sleazy winks fail to acknowledge is the important role that the romance genre plays in making pleasure accessible.

    I was at the Romance Writers’ Association conference in 2024 when bestselling writing duo Christina Lauren gave a rousing speech on how writing and reading romance is a feminist act: one of liberation, body empowerment and inclusivity. Author Jade May’s approach to writing spicy romance fiction echoes that important message.

    Jade has Crohn’s disease, an autoimmune condition that not only flipped her world upside down, but disrupted her connection with her body and femininity. As she explains here, romance helped her find her way back to herself – and now she wants to help as many people as possible discover their own path to pleasure.

    “I hope my novels offer readers a much-needed escape – a safe, empowering space where they can explore desires, fantasies, and kinks without fear of judgment,” Jade says. “I want my stories to be part of that larger fictional world where self-discovery and sexual liberation are celebrated, not shamed.”

    I worked on the line and copyedit for the first two books in Jade’s Eden series – contemporary romances set in the high-stakes world of billionaires, starring strong, empowered women who work at a gentleman’s club called Eden. Yes, they’re seriously spicy, but they’re also funny, heartfelt, and deliciously propulsive.

    Here, Jade opens up about her journey to writing spicy romance, what makes a great spice scene, and why her stories are designed to empower readers.

    Jade, tell us a little bit about who you are and how you got into writing.

    I’m an Australian spicy romance author living in sunny Sydney with my husband and our little whirlwind of a son. By day, I run my own business, and by night – when I’m not dozing off in front of the TV – I’m weaving angsty, steamy love stories.

    I’m a Kindle junkie because, let’s face it, my tiny Sydney home doesn’t have room for a sprawling bookshelf. Dark romance is my favourite sub-genre, and I’ve always been a voracious reader.

    I started writing during the COVID lockdowns – a way to express my creativity into something meaningful. What started as a personal project has now become my greatest passion, and I couldn’t be more excited to share my stories with all of you

    How do you describe the stories you write?

    I’d describe my stories as contemporary spicy romance – steamy, emotional, and full of heart. While the heat level is definitely high (and the scenes can get quite explicit), I wouldn’t call them erotica. For me, the spice is never the main event; it’s there to enhance the storyline, deepen the characters’ connections, and add that extra spark. It’s all about finding the perfect balance between passion and plot.

    Tell us about your new release, Tempted by Eden, and the Eden series. What can readers expect from these stories?

    The Eden series centres around the strong, independent women who work at Eden, a luxurious, exclusive brothel where control and desire intertwine, and the rich and famous indulge in their wildest fantasies. But Eden isn’t just about steamy encounters; it’s a world where secrets unravel, boundaries are tested, and true selves are revealed. As they navigate complex relationships, power struggles, and personal growth, they discover their happily-ever-afters with their irresistible alpha men. It’s a series of passion, betrayal, forbidden love, and self-discovery.

    Tempted by Eden is the first book in this spicy interconnected standalone series, which releases on 19 February, 2025. It’s an enemies-to-lovers office romance with a touch of kink, a dash of angst, and an ending that will leave you swooning. Expect high heat, complex emotions, and kink-positive messages throughout the series.

    Eden is a world where secrets unravel, boundaries are tested, and true selves are revealed.

    Why were you drawn to writing spicy romance fiction?

    I was diagnosed with Crohn’s disease at thirteen – right at the threshold of teenage life, when so much of your identity is shaped by the experiences you share with others. I spent a large part of those formative years in hospital, missing out on milestones that most teenagers take for granted. But during those long hospital days, I found solace in reading. Back then, I was a fantasy enthusiast, losing myself in epic tales of dragons, vampires, and werewolves.

    As I got older, my tastes shifted toward romance – spicy, empowering, and unapologetically bold. These stories opened my eyes to the multifaceted power of womanhood – its beauty, messiness, and resilience. They gave me the courage to explore my own desires, understand what appealed to me sexually, and connect with my femininity in ways I’d never done before. Romance was the only genre I saw that was created by women, for women, with women placed unapologetically at the centre of the narrative and desire.

    Spicy romance stories gave me the courage to explore my own desires, understand what appealed to me sexually, and connect with my femininity in ways I’d never done before.

    Living with a chronic illness, I’ve often encountered the assumption that disabled people – whether their disabilities are visible or invisible – are somehow sexless or less-than. Romance fiction shattered that narrative for me. It reminded me that we all share the same desires, needs, and vulnerabilities, regardless of our physical limitations. That realisation was deeply empowering and gave me the confidence to embrace my identity fully.

    Writing romance became a natural evolution of that journey. I wanted to create stories that offered the same kind of escape and self-discovery that reading gave me. Through my books, I hope to provide a safe space for women to explore their own desires and fantasies without judgment – while celebrating the messy, beautiful complexities of life, love, and everything in between.

    While reading and writing spicy romances didn’t magically cure my health struggles, it gave me something equally valuable: a space to heal emotionally, rediscover my femininity, and feel truly seen.

    People often dismiss romance as a genre, particularly erotic fiction. What’s your response to those who see romance as less worthy than other genres?

    The numbers don’t lie – romance is one of the most profitable fiction genres, generating around $1.44 billion in sales annually in the US. Clearly, there’s a massive appetite for it, and for good reason. Romance provides an escape, a refuge in a world that often feels chaotic and challenging. It’s a genre that champions sexual liberation, self-discovery, and human connection.

    For me, writing Tempted by Eden was deeply inspired by themes of self-discovery, feminism, and sexual liberation. It’s my hope that my books not only entertain but also provide that same safe space for others to embrace every part of who they are. Romance is anything but “less worthy” – it’s transformative.

    Your books also explore themes around the stigma sex workers face, and even though your female characters play submissive roles with their partners, they are strong, independent women. Is it important to you as a writer to portray sex-positive and feminist characters?

    Absolutely. I aim to emphasise that submission in a relationship or in the bedroom is a choice – a consensual, empowering one – and it’s not a reflection of weakness or lack of independence. My female characters are strong, self-assured, and know exactly what they want. They communicate their needs, assert their desires, and actively participate in creating dynamics that work for them. In fact, in any submissive relationship, the submissive partner holds immense power because they set the boundaries and ensure they are respected.

    The most important takeaway I want readers to have is that kink, including BDSM, is a personal and erotic choice – one grounded in consent, trust, and mutual respect. There’s a misconception that engaging in BDSM, especially as a submissive, somehow negates your feminist values. That couldn’t be further from the truth. Feminism is about choice – the freedom to live authentically and pursue what fulfills you, whether that involves submitting to a partner in an intimate context or not.

    It’s also essential to highlight that submission is about communication, having your needs heard, and creating an environment where you feel safe and valued, regardless of your partner’s gender or identity. My stories aim to challenge the stigma surrounding these dynamics while celebrating empowered, sex-positive women navigating their own paths with confidence and agency.

    Let’s talk about the craft side of it: Your books have some seriously hot spice scenes, which is a real skill! Have you always been good at writing spice or did you have to work at it?

    Spice is definitely something that has come naturally to me – it’s like my comfort zone when writing. The emotions, the tension, the connection – it all flows so easily. Honestly, it’s everything else that takes work! Crafting a strong plot, developing complex characters, and ensuring all the threads come together seamlessly? That’s where I’ve put in the hours. But the spice? That’s where I get to let loose and have fun.

    Write from a place of genuine emotion and connection. Spice isn’t just about the physical – it’s about the tension, the longing, and the intimacy between the characters. Focus on how the scene propels the relationship forward.

    What advice would you give other authors for writing spice?

    I wish I could give a detailed roadmap for writing great spice, but for me, it’s something that flows naturally – I just sit down and let the words take over. That said, I do have to be in the right mindset for it. If I’m not in the mood, the spice won’t translate well on to the page, so I don’t force it. Sometimes, I avoid writing those scenes altogether during certain parts of the month when I’m not feeling it.

    If I had to give advice, I’d say this: write from a place of genuine emotion and connection. Spice isn’t just about the physical – it’s about the tension, the longing, and the intimacy between the characters. Focus on how the scene propels the relationship forward or reveals something new about the characters.

    Ultimately, the best spice comes when you’re enjoying the process. So set the mood, let go of any pressure, and write what feels authentic to your story.

    Tell me a bit about your writing process. Do you have a writing routine that you follow? How do you keep your ideas and words flowing?

    Honestly, this is something I’m still figuring out! I haven’t quite nailed down a writing routine that works perfectly for me. Up until now, my writing has fit in around my health, family, and business – they always come first. I’m currently experimenting with different approaches to see what sticks and what feels sustainable long-term.

    One of my biggest challenges is being a perfectionist. I constantly want to edit and refine as I go, which slows down my progress and sometimes keeps me stuck in the same place. This year, I’m trying something new: writing sprints and committing not to edit or rewrite until I’ve hit 20,000 words. It’s a way to let the story flow and keep myself moving forward.

    I think the key is to stay flexible and patient with yourself. Writing is a creative and personal process, and what works for one person might not work for another. It’s all about finding your rhythm and allowing yourself the grace to adjust as you go.

    What’s your favourite writing craft tip or mantra?

    My favourite writing mantra is: Don’t force it. If you’re not feeling it, step away. Writing when you’re uninspired often leads to work that doesn’t feel authentic – and more often than not, you’ll end up rewriting it later. Let the ideas come naturally, and when you’re in the right mindset, the words will flow and truly resonate on the page. Writing should feel like a connection, not a chore.

    I really enjoyed copyediting two of your books last year and especially loved the humour and depth you injected into your stories – the characters are really relatable and vibrant. You also have a great sense of how to pull readers through a book. How important is editing to your process?

    Thank you so much – you’re too kind! It’s funny you mention the humour because I never intentionally set out to inject it into my books, but it somehow sneaks in through my writing style. I guess it’s just a natural part of how I tell stories!

    Editing, though, is absolutely fundamental to my process – it’s where the magic really happens. I usually start with a first draft to get the story down, then move on to a second draft to polish and refine. After that, it’s off to developmental editing, where I make sure the structure and characters are as strong as they can be. Then comes another round of revisions, followed by line and copyediting to tighten the prose and perfect the details. Finally, I wrap it all up with proofreading to catch any lingering errors.

    Each stage of editing is critical, and I truly believe it’s what transforms a story into something special. It’s hard work, but seeing the final result – something I’m proud to share with readers – makes it all worth it.

    Can you tell us what you’re working on at the moment?

    Right now, I’m deep into the third book of the Eden series – but it’s all under wraps for now! I can’t share too much just yet, but what I can promise is the same signature mix of heat, emotion, and angst from my other books. Stay tuned – this one’s going to be worth the wait.

    Finally, where can we buy your books and follow your author journey?

    You can grab Tempted by Eden on Kindle Unlimited from 19 February. Seduced by Eden is available at all online retailers for pre-orders and will release on 21 May. After its release, it will move exclusively to Amazon – so don’t miss your chance to snag it on other platforms. For collectors, my special limited-edition foil hardbacks, printed in stunning full colour, are available on my website – they’re absolutely gorgeous!

    Stay connected and follow my author journey on Instagram, TikTok, Threads, and Facebook: @authorjademay. Join my reader group, Jade May’s Manor, or sign up for my newsletter to stay in the loop and get exclusive updates.

    PS: Writers, if you’d like to chat about line and copyediting for your romance, drop me a line for a free sample edit and Zoom call.

  • How-to

    How to use dashes: a guide for authors

    Get a handle on how to use en and em dashes in fiction and non-fiction writing

    Welcome to the much-requested follow-up to my hyphen blog post! I’m here to walk you through how to use dashes in fiction and non-fiction writing, because I know you love them but you don’t always know if you need them.

    What are dashes?

    Let’s be clear: I’m not talking about hyphens (-) here. We covered that in this post. Dashes are similar but longer horizontal lines that have an entirely different role to play in your writing.

    Depending on your preference or your region, you may be more familiar with an en dash (–) or an em dash (—). The en dash is more often seen in British and Australian English texts, while the em dash is common in the land that loves everything bigger: America, of course!

    This is not a hard and fast rule: you can use whatever length dash in any location, as long as you’re consistent. Their names are a throwback to the early days of typesetting: an en dash is a line that is approximately the width of the letter N, while the em dash is about the width of the letter M.

    Spacing around dashes

    You might have noticed that dashes are often used with or without spaces around them. Often, an en dash is ‘spaced’. It looks like – this.

    Em dashes are often seen ‘closed’, like—this. But they can also be left ‘open’, like — this.

    How to type en dashes and em dashes

    If you use a Mac, it’s easy.

    • En dash: option + hyphen [-]
    • Em dash: option + shift + hyphen [-]

    For Windows users, it’s a little more complicated.

    In Microsoft Word, you can type a hyphen [-] with spaces around it and it will automatically convert to a dash. For an em dash, type two hyphens without spaces around them and it will convert to a closed em dash.

    Or use these shortcuts:

    • En dash: ctrl + hyphen [-]
    • Em dash: alt + ctrl + hyphen [-]

    Outside of Microsoft Office programs, use these shortcuts:

    • Em dash: alt + 0151
    • En dash: alt + 0150

    If your dream is a keyboard with an em or en dash key, you could map a key you don’t often use to type your preferred dash.

    Which dash is best?

    There’s no right or wrong here. It’s a style choice. In the UK and Australia, we tend to use spaced en dashes. US readers will probably be more familiar with closed em dashes. Consider using the style that your audience will be familiar with. The most important thing is to be consistent, so if you usually use en dashes, don’t just throw in a closed em dash when you feel particularly, er, dashing.

    There are a few caveats (of course. This is English we’re talking about). In some cases, an en or em dash is the correct option, regardless of your style for dashes. Let’s go through the uses for dashes.

    Dashes that separate a word, clause or phrase from the main clause

    This is, I think, the most common use of dashes and the most commonly confused. We use dashes (en or em) to add information, an explanation, a humorous aside, or to interject. I see writers become concerned that using dashes in this way is somehow incorrect, which I think stems from the fact that dashes are just one way of punctuating these kinds of sentences; you can also use parentheses and commas.

    Let’s take a look:

    • The man – a stranger – was tall and imposing.

    You could also write this sentence as:

    • The man, a stranger, was tall and imposing.
    • The man (a stranger) was tall and imposing.

    None of these are wrong, but consider the impact of each punctuation choice. For me, the dashes give the sentence greater tension than the quieter comma or the gentle aside of the parentheses. The emphasis on the stranger is stark, pointing out that the reader should take special note of this information. The parentheses and the commas don’t give the same sense of foreboding or danger. So if you’re debating whether to use a dash or alternative punctuation, try writing them out and seeing if the tone of the sentence changes. Sometimes you might not want the drama of the dashes!

    Dashes can also be used to create a sense of humour or sarcasm. Think of them like a comedic beat. For example:

    • The kids were helping in the kitchen – well, that’s how they put it.
    • Trump said the trial was ‘very terrible’ – it was certainly an ordeal for our reporters.

    You can also use a dash instead of a colon. For instance:

    • At last, the man told them his name: Michael.
    • At last, the man told them his name – Michael.

    Or you might be tossing up between a dash and a semicolon. For example:

    • She knew all about the new guy – everyone did.
    • She knew all about the new guy; everyone did.

    And remember, you can use closed em dashes if that’s your style:

    • The man—a stranger—was imposing.
    • At last, the man told them his name—Michael.
    • She knew all about the new guy—everyone did.

    As with so much in writing, whether to use a dash or an alternative punctuation mark is up to you and your unique style. You might feel that a colon is too formal for your project, or that parentheses don’t belong in dialogue. These are valid arguments, and if you feel strongly about it, always communicate that with your editor so they know your preferences.

    Dashes in dialogue

    Another really important use of dashes in fiction (and non-fiction, especially narrative non-fiction) is to set off narrative description when it interrupts dialogue.

    You probably already know all about using action beats in dialogue (if not, stay tuned for a blog post soon). When these fall between full sentences, it looks like this (the action beat is in bold):

    • ‘I did the job, just like you asked.’ Michael ran a sweaty palm down his leg. ‘I want my money.’

    But when the action beat interrupts a sentence, you can use dashes to show action happening at the same time as the speech. Take a look at this:

    • ‘I did the job’ – Michael ran a sweaty palm down his leg – ‘and now I want my money.’

    If you’re using closed em dashes, it would look like this:

    • ‘I did the job’—Michael ran a sweaty palm down his leg—‘and now I want my money.’

    We also use dashes to indicate when dialogue is interrupted. Usually (not always!), we use em dashes for this, regardless of whether the overall style is for en dashes or not. Take a look at this:

    • ‘Michael, the job just wasn’t worth—’
    • ‘I told you, I want my money!’

    While a closed em dash is the simplest way to indicate broken-off speech, some style guides will differentiate between a spaced em dash after a complete word to indicate a broken-off sentence, and a closed-up em dash to indicate a broken-off word:

    • To indicate an interrupted sentence: ‘Michael, the job just wasn’t worth —’
    • To indicate an interrupted word: ‘Michael, the job just wasn’t wor—’

    Other style guides might use spaced en dashes instead of em dashes for interruptions. Take a look at this conversation between Taylor and Andie in That Island Feeling by Karina May, published by Pan Macmillan.

    • ‘I won’t hear another word about it! We’re taking you away,’ I announce.
    • ‘But I don’t –’
    • ‘I know the perfect place.’

    It’s worth noting that no other punctuation is needed after the dash before the closing quotation mark. For example, please don’t ever write: ‘But I don’t —,’ or ‘But I don’t—.’

    What about the sentence following the interruption – shouldn’t that begin with a dash, you might ask? I see this a lot, but the only case for it is when the sentence is interrupted and a different character or the same character finishes the same sentence. Take a look at this example from Not Here to Make Friends by Jodi McAlister, published by Simon & Schuster, in which Lily and Murray are discussing their first job on a reality TV show:

    •  ‘It’s a long game,’ I said. ‘First, we learn the rules. And then—’
    • ‘—we seize the means of production?’

    Here, Murray is finishing the sentence for Lily, so the opening dash shows that it’s the one sentence. Similarly, you might have one character’s sentence interrupted by action and dialogue, like this:

    • ‘Look, I love him and—’
    • The doorbell rang and my parents’ heads swivelled to the sound.
    • ‘Darling, the pizza’s here. Can this wait?’ Mum asked gently.
    • ‘—I’m going to marry him, dammit!’ I yelled.
    If the character had responded to Mum’s question about the pizza (therefore beginning a new sentence), it would be punctuated like this: 
     
    • ‘Look, I love him and—’
    • The doorbell rang and my parents’ heads swivelled to the sound.
    • ‘Darling, the pizza’s here. Can this wait?’ Mum asked gently.
    • ‘No, it absolutely cannot!’ I yelled.

    Dashes that indicate halting speech

    In my guide to hyphens I showed how to use hyphens to indicate stuttered speech. Similarly you can use dashes to show speech that is faltering or hesitant, with dashes between each full word. This is great way to show a character who is flustered, rushed or nervous. Here’s an example with both em dashes and en dashes.

    • Em dashes: ‘I don’t—I mean, I can’t—I just—I’m not sure about this, Mandy.’
    • En dashes: ‘I don’t – I mean, I can’t – I just – I’m not sure about this, Mandy.’

    If you wanted to show the sentence trailing off, you could use an ellipsis alongside your dashes:

    • ‘I just – I don’t know … I’m not sure, Mandy.’

    Dashes between words of equal importance

    While hyphens are used to join two or more words to create a single unit, an en dash can be used in a similar way to show an equal relationship between the words. For example:

    • win–win
    • work–life balance
    • on–off relationship
    • doctor–patient confidentiality
    This is always the job of an en dash, even if your style is to use em dashes as dashes generally.

    Dashes in a range

    Again, regardless of your style, use en dashes only to replace ‘to’ and ‘from’ in a range:

    • Monday–Friday
    • 9.30am–5pm
    • 1980–1990

    Dashes to indicate omitted text

    Want to use swear words without swearing? Use em dashes (and only em dashes). Want to mention a person without actually revealing the name? Use em dashes. A closed em dash indicates that part of the word is missing, while a spaced em dash indicates the entire word has been omitted.

    • ‘You are a real piece of s—, you are,’ he said.
    • The antique belongs to Mrs — of Highgate.

    Author Meg Mason uses this technique to devastating effect in her book Sorrow and Bliss published by Fourth Estate. Two em dashes (indicating two missing words) are used throughout to conceal the name of Martha’s mental illness, forcing the reader to set aside unconscious biases and focus on the character’s experience. Here’s an example of how it was used:

    • All of it had been chosen by a woman who as far as she knew did not have — —, a woman who just thought she wasn’t good at being a person.

    Common mistakes with dashes

    The biggest dash clangers I see as an editor?

    • * Not using en or em dashes consistently
    • * Adding a comma or full stop after a dash used to indicate an interrupted sentence

    Most of the time, though, I think authors have a good instinct for using them to indicate an aside or to separate a clause or phrase within a sentence, so don’t stress about your dashes – follow your heart!

    All you have to decide now is which dash you prefer – are you an en or an em dash author?

    If you have more questions about how to use dashes in your writing, drop me a line. I can also help you manage your punctuation mishaps with a line and copyedit for your work in progress. Get in touch for a free sample edit. 

  • How-to

    How to use hyphens correctly

    Confused about how to use hyphens in your writing? Here’s my handy guide to hyphens, with plenty of tips and examples to help you out.

    Ahh, hyphens. How can one little mark cause so much confusion? If you’re a writer you’ve no doubt spent some valuable time mulling over whether you need a hyphen in your sentence/title/character’s name/chapter numbers. Or perhaps you boldly throw them in whenever it feels right – you follow your heart when it comes to that little dash and hope for the best.

    Like most forms of punctuation, hyphens were not conceived to confuse writers, but to clarify text. They’re super helpful, and when you know how they work, you’ll be grateful they’re part of your writing toolbox.

    1. What is a hyphen?

    To be clear, I’m talking about the punctuation mark that’s a short horizontal line: –

    You might call this a dash, but a hyphen is not technically a dash! Dashes are longer horizontal lines known as an en dash (–) or an em dash (—) and they serve different functions. We’ll talk about them in another post.

    What are hyphens used for?

    Let’s start with an overview of what hyphens do. You might be surprised to find that they have quite a diverse skill set.

    Hyphens are used to:

    • – form compound words
    • – form compound adjectives that modify nouns
    • – add prefixes to words (and suffixes)
    • – connect names
    • – connect numbers
    • – indicate stuttering or spelled-out words

    So, yeah. It’s a lot.

    Hyphens in compound words

    Did you know that words like tomorrow, teenager and notebook were once hyphenated? Yep, they were really spelled like this:

    • to-morrow
    • teen-ager
    • note-book

    Weird, right? Over time, they’ve evolved to become one word, no hyphen necessary.

    But when we’re still getting used to the idea of two or more words becoming one, we often use a hyphen (or hyphens) to form a single unit. For example:

    • six-pack
    • brother-in-law
    • a two-year-old
    • double-check

    Not all dictionaries agree on the state of play for hyphens in compound words, so it’s always best to check your relevant dictionary or style guide. For instance, the Macquarie Dictionary prefers wellbeing as one word, but the Merriam-Webster Dictionary lists it with a hyphen: well-being. And to make matters more confusing, some compound words are left permanently ‘open’ – no hyphen. Think real estate, living room, washing machine and iced tea.

    Using hyphens to create compound adjectives that modify nouns

    This is my favourite use of the hyphen – connecting two or more words that modify a noun.

    The main reason we use hyphens in this way is to avoid ambiguity. As an editor, I’m always striving to make writing clear so the reader can absorb its meaning without stopping to reread the sentence. Great writing is kind of invisible – you’re not thinking what does that mean? as you read, you’re just taking it in. Even a moment’s confusion can disrupt a reader and pull them out of a story, and that’s why punctuation marks like the hyphen are a writer’s best friend. It’s a tiny bit of punctuation doing a big job.

    For instance, if you wrote:

    • He demanded that they provide more experienced staff next time.

    And you meant that he was demanding different staff who had more experience than the noobs who have just filled the role, rather than an extra number of staff with the same level of experience, you would use a hyphen to make that meaning instantly clear:

    • He demanded that they provide more-experienced staff next time.

    The hyphen shows that more and experienced are working together to modify the word staff.

    Or perhaps your character wanted to convey how many people were at an event in a casual way. You could write:

    • ‘Oh, I’d say there were about thirty-odd people there.’

    If you left out the hyphen – thirty odd people – your character would be describing the people who attended the event as odd, rather than giving a rough sense of how many showed up.

    Regardless of ambiguity and absurdity, we still hyphenate compound adjectives before a noun. Here are some more examples:

    • We went to the five-star hotel
    • She had golden-brown hair
    • He is a seventeen-year-old boy
    • The adults-only pool
    • An impossible-to-find address

    Note that when the sentence construction is flipped so that the modifying words come after the noun, they don’t require hyphens:

    • The hotel had five stars
    • Her hair was golden brown
    • The boy is seventeen years old
    • The pool is for adults only
    • The address was impossible to find

    Hyphens with adverbs ending in -ly

    Before you get excited and start adding hyphens to compound modifiers everywhere, a word of caution: you don’t need to use a hyphen between adverbs ending in -ly and the word they are modifying. For example:

    • Wrong: A beautifully-designed home
    • Right: A beautifully designed home
    • Wrong: The gently-loved toy
    • Right: The gently loved toy
    • Wrong: A happily-married couple
    • Right: A happily married couple

    This is because adverbs used in this way are pretty much impossible to misinterpret, so adding a hyphen here is considered a hypercorrection (a ‘correction’ that adds an error). Not all words ending in -ly are adverbs, though. For example, family-friendly event is hyphenated because family is a noun, not an adverb.

    Hyphens with long phrasal adjectives

    What about when you have a long phrase – more than three words – modifying a noun?  There are a few ways of treating these, and it’s up to you how you’d like to approach it. Personally, I prefer hyphens, but quote marks or italics can also work, especially if it’s a particularly long phrase. Here’s what I mean:

    • She wore a don’t-mess-with-me expression
    • I clocked her do not go there look
    • The old house had a ‘someone definitely died here’ feel

    Hyphens with prefixes

    Let’s talk about the other headache in the writer’s studio: prefixes. We use a hyphen for clarity when adding the prefix doubles or triples a vowel or consonant:

    • co-opt
    • re-examine
    • bell-like
    • pre-eminent
    • anti-inflammatory

    (Although, not always. Some words are well known enough that they no longer use a hyphen, like cooperate and coordinate. Always check your dictionary if you’re unsure.)

    A hyphen is also used with a prefix to help us distinguish between words that are spelled the same way but have a different meaning. For example:

    • re-creation / recreation
    • re-cover / recover
    • un-ionise / unionise
    • re-sign / resign

    You should always use a hyphen with the prefix ‘ex-’:

    • ex-president
    • ex-boyfriend
    • ex-employee

    And when using ‘self’ as a prefix:

    • self-satisfied
    • self-employed
    • self-absorbed
    We also often use a hyphen with the prefix ‘non-‘: 
    • non-porous
    • non-event
    • non-hyphenated (I know!)

    Hyphens with numbers

    Another use case for hyphens is in numbers 21–99 when written out as words:

    • twenty-one
    • eighty-three
    • two hundred and ninety-nine

    They’re also used to join parts of a fraction when written as words:

    • two-thirds
    • one-quarter

    Use hyphens with numbers as figures or words when they’re forming a compound adjective. For example:

    • A 17-year-old boy
    • Take a 10-minute break / take a ten-minute break
    • A two-storey building  
    • The 44-room hotel / the forty-four-room hotel

    What about when referring to height? Perhaps you want to describe your characters’ height in feet. Generally, this doesn’t require hyphens:

    • He stood tall at six foot two
    • She was all of five foot nothing

    But, remember the rule about compound adjectives modifying a noun:

    • A six-foot-two man
    • The five-foot-nothing woman was angry
    • She wore four-inch heels

    Hyphens in names

    Do all double-barrelled last names require a hyphen? No. This is up to the individual, even if other family members use the hyphen, so always check if you’re referring to a real person:

    • Rosie Huntington-Whiteley
    • Helena Bonham Carter
    • Julia Louis-Dreyfus
    • Kristin Scott Thomas

    The same applies to first names. Consider:

    • Mary-Anne / Maryanne
    • John-Paul / John Paul

    Hyphens to indicate stuttering and spelling

    Finally, let’s talk about a use case for hyphens that often crops up in fiction. This is when you want to show your character stuttering, stammering or stumbling in their speech. You can use hyphens to illustrate their faltering dialogue by placing them between repeated sounds, like this:

    • ‘I-I-I didn’t s-s-see that, sir,’ he spluttered.
    • ‘Sh-sh-she said so!’

    Note that you don’t need to repeat the capital in a stuttered sound at the beginning of a sentence, unless that sound is from a proper noun:

    • ‘G-G-Grandma isn’t here.’

    There are a few ways to indicate faltering speech, including using ellipses and dashes, but if you specifically want to show a stammering or stuttering sound, hyphens used in this way is a good option.

    You can also use hyphens to indicate a word that is spelled out: 

    • ‘It’s Anne with an E. A-N-N-E.’

    Common hyphen mistakes

    The most common hyphen usage mistakes I see in fiction and non-fiction manuscripts:

    • – Hyphenating adverbs ending in -ly in compound modifiers
    • – Failing to hyphenate compound modifiers before a noun.

    If you learn nothing else, getting a handle on these will save you time and stress at your writing desk!

    If you have more questions about hyphens, drop me a line! And if you’d like help wrangling punctuation, get in touch with me to chat about a copyedit for your project. I offer a free sample edit so you can see exactly how copyediting will enhance your storytelling and clarify your message.

  • Author interviews

    Christina Gustavson has a sixth sense

    The Swedish crime novelist shares how her career in forensic psychiatry shapes her writing.

    Christina Gustavson

    If anyone knows how to get inside the mind of a killer, it’s Christina Gustavson.

    The Swedish writer is well into her second act as a novelist after a successful career as a forensic psychiatrist and medical doctor.

    Christina puts these skills to good use in her crime novels, two of which are now available in English via Amazon: Murderous Lies and Sixth Scent. Set in the idyllic Swedish countryside, they simmer with tension, complex characters and twisty, ripped-from-the-headlines plots.

    I loved working with Christina on the copyedit for the English versions of these books, and I asked her to share more about her process here.

    Christina, tell us a little about yourself. Where are you based and what kind of novels do you write?

    I live in the southern part of Sweden and I mainly write crime novels, but I have written some non-fiction books on mental health and some other more feel-good novels as well. I have a PhD in forensic psychiatry, and I’m also a medical doctor and a specialist in general psychiatry, general medicine and forensic psychiatry.

    How did you get started in writing?

    I have been writing since I was very young. In the beginning I wrote a diary, articles for newspapers, lectures during my work etc, and gradually the idea of writing a book came to my mind. I actually started writing non-fiction books; the first of these, about recognising the symptoms of depression in family, friends and colleagues, sold out within a week, and this naturally spurred me to continue writing and explore other genres as well.

    What drew you to the crime/thriller genre?

    Probably three things: the profession of my grandfather, being a local judge; my own profession as a medical doctor and forensic psychiatrist; and the fact that I like solving problems. I prefer to read crime novels, so when starting writing it was natural to write crime novels.

    How do you draw on your background as a forensic psychologist in your fiction? For instance, does it help you understand your characters’ motives? Do you have insight into police methods?

    Both. It definitely helps me understand the motives and what goes on in the characters’ heads, but I have insight into police methods as well.

    Where do your ideas for your novels come from?

    It might be a picture, a headline in a newspaper or just a few words I overheard accidentally somewhere that thrilled my imagination. I am very careful never to use my previous patients and their crime stories in my books, because of privacy laws, but also because it’s more fun to invent my own stories and be creative.

    If over a hundred other authors have written about crimes in our capital, why should I? I prefer to find my own ways and unique settings.

    I love being able to visit the Swedish countryside through your novels. What makes it a great place to set a crime?

    A crime can take place anywhere, but I have chosen to write about the Swedish countryside and places I know well, since it helps me to build more authentic stories. Besides, if over a hundred other authors have written about crimes in our capital, why should I? I don’t like to follow the mainstream. I prefer to find my own ways and unique settings.

    Can you share a little bit about your writing process? Do you have a writing routine?

    Yes, I have a routine. I get up at 6.30 am every day, seven days a week, and sit down in front of my laptop and try to keep up “office hours”. But writing is also a thinking process – the words do not automatically pour out from my pen like water from the tap, thus I think a lot while driving around in the countryside, and I have a special recliner chair where I can sit and permit myself to do nothing at all but think.

    I get many ideas that I like to explore. This means I’ve started writing several books. I write one chapter here and there when I feel like it, or get some idea, but when I have written approximately 25 percent of a book, I think it might be worthwhile completing it, and I decide to go for it. Then I work only on that manuscript until the whole book is ready.

    When writing a non-fiction book, I am definitely a plotter, but when writing crime fiction I start from an idea and then I like to see where the story goes. I have discovered that sometimes my characters start to live their own lives and don’t always do what I had had in mind when starting the writing process. This makes the writing very thrilling for me.

    I’ve really enjoyed working on the English versions of your books. Can you share some of the biggest differences you’ve found in writing for English readers as opposed to Swedish?

    There are linguistic differences – for example, in English you would say, He opened his mouth, while in Swedish, people would think, What! He can hardly open anyone else’s mouth, so in Swedish it will be He opened the mouth.
    But the main trap is what is understood “between the lines”. This differs a lot, as well as various expressions and idiomatic sentences that can’t be understood if translated word by word.

    I have discovered that sometimes my characters start to live their own lives and don’t always do what I had in mind when starting the writing process. This makes the writing very thrilling for me.

    How do you find the editing process in general? Do you enjoy it?

    I enjoy it very much, though it is a tough job. Sometimes I have to “kill my darlings”, sometimes I find eye openers or realise that what I have written can be misunderstood or not understood at all. To work with an editor is a fantastic process, giving a feeling of completion, a feeling that now this book can’t be better, and I am ever so grateful for having your help in improving and refining my English manuscripts. [Editor’s note: Thank you!]

    What do you think makes a great crime novel? What advice would you give other authors who want to write crime?

    Everyone’s taste is different, but I like realistic stories; it must work. My advice:

    It will be more fun for the reader if you place your plot in a place no one else has written about before. Make it your own spot on earth.

    Use a scenario (place, profession, music etc) that you know very well and can give exact descriptions about.

    The police work must be accurate when writing crime.

    Don’t just tell about things happening as seen in a distance or told afterwards, but let the reader, through your words, be right there where it happens, and see, hear, smell, taste and experience.

    Be careful about your research and spend time finding your facts.

    Avoid giving psychiatric diagnoses. My guess is that at least 95 percent of the world’s population has none, so try to stay within the “normal” variables – but if you do use a diagnosis, make sure your character fulfils 100 percent of the criteria throughout the whole book.

    Don’t forget to portray instead of giving plain descriptions.

    If you’re interested in crime fiction, you have probably seen a number of American films or TV series. Court procedure and police work is not like that everywhere. Do find out the exact procedures in your own country or the country where you placed your plot.

    What’s next for you – when will Sixth Scent be released and do you have another book in the works?

    Sixth Scent is out now. Since I know by experience that I get a kind of “post-partum depression” when I have published a new book, I’ve already started a new project.

    What’s the best way for English readers to keep up with your work?

    You can visit my website http://www.gustavson.se or follow me on Facebook: http://www.facebook.com/christina.gustavson.58 or Instagram: @christinagustavson.forfattare

    Christina has written a staggering 17 crime novels, published in Swedish. Two have been translated into English and are available on Amazon: Murderous Lies and Sixth Scent.

  • Editing, How-to

    5 ways to improve your manuscript

    Good news! These tips don’t involve any writing.

    Feeling a bit of writer’s block? Don’t worry, there are lots of ways to improve your manuscript without having to labour over sentences and story arc.

    Here are five ways to give your work-in-progress a lift, without lifting your word count.

    1. Brush up formatting

    Go through your manuscript and make sure each chapter is set on a new page (use a page break instead of hitting that return button), chapters are numbered in order, and you’ve used an easy-to-read font like Times New Roman 12 pt, with double or 1.5 line spacing.

    This will instantly improve your manuscript by giving it a more consistent and professional appearance, and save you time later when you’re getting it ready to submit to publishers or agents.

    2. Check regional spelling

    Did you know there are lots of variations of English? Depending on your target audience, you can choose the one your readers will be most familiar with. If you’re publishing in Australia, use Australian English. This means you’ll be following the Macquarie Dictionary for spelling variations. If you’re aiming for the US market, go with US English – the Merriam-Webster is a great resource (and it’s free!). For British readers, use UK English and the Oxford Dictionary.

    Choosing a regional English language helps you to maintain consistency across your manuscript. It ensures you catch words that are spelled differently in different countries – like curb and kerb, cosy and cozy – and it will guide you on regional terms such as trash can or garbage bin, sidewalk or pavement, lollies or candy, cell phone or mobile phone – the list goes on.

    3. Look at consistency

    I can’t emphasise enough how important consistency is in making a finished manuscript look professional! As the author, you get to make a lot of decisions about the words you want to use and your preferred spelling variations to ensure consistency. Run searches for words that can be spelled differently, such as OK vs okay, and choose one to use throughout. You should also check whether you’ve used punctuation such as quote marks (single or double) and dashes (en or em) consistently throughout.

    Note: in Australia, we tend to use single quote marks with nested doubles, eg: ’Hey, did you hear that song, “Espresso” by Sabrina Carpenter?’ The US tends to reverse this: double quotes with nested singles, eg: “No, I much prefer Dua Lipa‘s new song, ’Illusion’.

    Consistency affects loads of elements: You can also make a note of how you’ll use numbers (as a basic starting point, we often see numbers one to ninety-nine spelled out and 100+ as numerals in books), show time (words or figures), address capitalisation in headings, punctuate abbreviations and more.

    And of course, it affects aspects such as character features and setting details as well. Taking note of whether your main character has blue eyes and always wears rose-scented perfume will ensure you don’t confuse readers by mixing up those foundational details later in the story.

    4. Review character names

    Do any of your characters have similar sounding names? If you have two characters with names that look and sound alike – Dave and Dan or Lisa and Liz, for instance – it’s a good idea to change one of them, to ensure readers don’t get confused about who’s doing what. This applies to minor characters too!

    Even if you don’t think your characters’ names are similar, they can appear that way on the page to a reader who’s skimming over a paragraph. So even sharing the same initial can be enough to warrant changing a character name.

    While you’re there, keep an eye out for characters’ names that have changed during the course of the novel. This happens more often than you might think!

    5. Weed out repetition

    Do you already know which words you have a tendency to use in every second sentence? If so, do a search and see how many instances you can remove to ensure they don’t become repetitive. This applies to elements such as speech tags and action beats, too. You might find you’re often making your characters fiddle with their hair or exclaim loudly!

    If you haven’t yet twigged to your crutch words, start by searching for adverbs: really, very, finally, actually and completely are common, and most of the time you don’t need them. Take a look and see how many you can weed out! It’ll make your writing so much stronger.

    Don’t feel bad that you’ve developed a writing crutch – it’s natural to reach for the same words over and over, especially when working on a full-length novel. Looking out for them so you can change it up is all part of the editing process – and it’s a powerful way to improve your manuscript.

    Want some help maintaining consistency in your work? Reach out about line and copyediting. I’ll look out for all these aspects and more, and will record all decisions in a style sheet so you can keep track of your preferences throughout the publishing process.